Sokeri

Wikipedia

Sokerit ovat hiilihydraatteja, joiden molekyylit koostuvat yhdestä (monosakkaridit) tai kahdesta (disakkaridit) sokeriyksiköstä. Niitä esiintyy varsinkin monissa kasvikunnan tuotteissa. Sokerit liukenevat runsaasti veteen, mutta ne voidaan myös kiteyttää, ja ne maistuvat makeilta. Tavallisimmat monosakkaridit ovat rypälesokeri eli glukoosi ja hedelmäsokeri eli fruktoosi.

Tavallisimmin sokerista puhuttaessa tarkoitetaan ruokosokeria eli sakkaroosia, joka on glukoosista ja fruktoosista koostuva disakkaridi. Sitä valmistetaan teollisesti sokeriruo'osta ja sokerijuurikkaasta.

Sisällysluettelo 1 Sokerit aineryhmänä 1.1 Monosakkaridit 1.2 Disakkaridit 1.3 Polysakkaridit 2 Sokerin haittavaikutukset terveydelle 3 Katso myös 4 Lähteet 5 Aiheesta muualla

[muokkaa] Sokerit aineryhmänä

[muokkaa] Monosakkaridit

Monosakkaridit ovat perussokereita, niissä on yksi sakkaridirengas, jossa on viisi tai kuusi hiiliatomia ja liittyneenä muita ryhmiä. Viisihiiliset renkaat ovat pentooseja, kuusihiiliset heksooseja.

Tärkeimmät heksoosit ovat:

• glukoosi (rypälesokeri) (C₆H₁₂O₆)
• fruktoosi (hedelmäsokeri) (C₆H₁₂O₆)
• galaktoosi (C₆H₁₂O₆)

Glukoosissa, fruktoosissa ja galaktoosissa on rengasmuodossa hiilirenkaassa viisi hiiliatomia ja yksi happiatomi. Renkaaseen on liittynyt hydroksyyliryhmiä, joiden sijainti vaikuttaa molekyylin ominaisuuksiin. Luonnossa heksoosit esiintyvät pääasiassa rengasmuodossa, mutta reagoivat avoketjuisina.

Glukoosi on verenkierrossa käyttökelpoisessa muodossa, käytettäväksi soluissa energian tuotantoon. Glukoosia saadaan runsaasti makeista hedelmistä, marjoista ja hunajasta, sen pitoisuutta veressä säätelee insuliini. Fruktoosia on myös marjoissa, kasviksissa ja hunajassa. Maksa muuntaa galaktoosia ja fruktoosia glukoosiksi, joten ne imeytyvät hitaammin.

Pentooseja:

• Riboosi (C₅H₁₀O₅)
• Deoksiriboosi (C₅H₁₀O₄)

Riboosi ja deoksiriboosi ovat DNA:n ja RNA:n rakennusaineita.

[muokkaa] Disakkaridit

Monimutkaisemmat disakkaridit koostuvat kahdesta sakkaridista jotka yhdistyvät glykosidisidoksella vesimolekyylin lohjetessa. Sidoksessa on happiatomin muodostama silta. Disakkaridit hajoavat ruuansulatuksessa entsyymien vaikutuksesta monosakkarideiksi, jotka imeytyvät suolen seinän läpi. Kuutta yleisintä mono- ja disakkaridia nimitetään ravitsemustaulukoissa sokereiksi. Kaikki maistuvat makeilta.

Tärkeimmät disakkaridit ovat:

• Sakkaroosi (ruokosokeri) (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)
• Maltoosi (mallassokeri) (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)
• Laktoosi (maitosokeri) (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)
• Trehaloosi (sienisokeri)

Sakkaroosi koostuu glukoosista ja fruktoosista. Sitä saadaan sokerijuurikkaasta ja -ruo'osta. Sakkaroosin hajotessa glukoosiksi ja fruktoosiksi syntyy inverttisokeriksi kutsuttu seos.

Maltoosi (glukoosi+glukoosi) esiintyy maltaissa, se on oluen valmistuksessa alkoholiksi käyvä sokeri.

Laktoosi (glukoosi+galaktoosi) esiintyy maitotuotteissa. Se aiheuttaa vatsavaivoja ihmisille, joilta puuttuu laktoosia hajottava laktaasi-entsyymi, laktoosin hajoamisen estyessä paksusuolen bakteerit käyttävät sen ravintonaan.

Sokerikulooria käytetään ruskeana väriaineena (E150).

[muokkaa] Polysakkaridit

Polysakkaridit ovat useammasta kuin kahdesta sakkaridiyksiköstä muodostuvia polymeerisiä hiilihydraatteja. Niitä ei voi enää perinteisessä mielessä pitää "sokereina". Niitä ovat:

• Glykogeeni
• Tärkkelys
• Selluloosa, kuitu

[muokkaa] Sokerin haittavaikutukset terveydelle

Sokerin, ja erityisesti teollisesti valmistetun sokerin haittavaikutuksista terveydelle on runsaasti näyttöä.

Lue *146 tapaa kuinka sokeri uhkaa terveyttäsi (englannin kielinen sivusto)

[muokkaa] Katso myös

• Makeus
• Täysruokosokeri

[muokkaa] Lähteet

Lähteet 146 haittavaikutukselle:

1. Sanchez, A., et al. "Role of Sugars in Human Neutrophilic Phagocytosis," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Nov 1973;261:1180-1184. Bernstein, J., et al. "Depression of Lymphocyte Transformation Following Oral Glucose Ingestion." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.1997;30:613.

2. Couzy, F., et al."Nutritional Implications of the Interaction Minerals," Progressive Food and Nutrition Science 17;1933:65-87.

3. Goldman, J., et al. "Behavioral Effects of Sucrose on Preschool Children." Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.1986;14(4):565-577.

4. Scanto, S. and Yudkin, J. "The Effect of Dietary Sucrose on Blood Lipids, Serum Insulin, Platelet Adhesiveness and Body Weight in Human Volunteers," Postgraduate Medicine Journal. 1969;45:602-607.

5. Ringsdorf, W., Cheraskin, E. and Ramsay R. "Sucrose,Neutrophilic Phagocytosis and Resistance to Disease," Dental Survey. 1976;52(12):46-48.

6. Cerami, A., Vlassara, H., and Brownlee, M."Glucose and Aging." Scientific American. May 1987:90. Lee, A. T. and Cerami, A. "The Role of Glycation in Aging." Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 663:63-67.

7. Albrink, M. and Ullrich I. H. "Interaction of Dietary Sucrose and Fiber on Serum Lipids in Healthy Young Men Fed High Carbohydrate Diets." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1986;43:419-428. Pamplona, R., et al. “Mechanisms of Glycation in Atherogenesis.” Medical Hypotheses. Mar 1993;40(3):174-81.

8. Kozlovsky, A., et al. "Effects of Diets High in Simple Sugars on Urinary Chromium Losses." Metabolism. June 1986;35:515-518.

9. Takahashi, E., Tohoku University School of Medicine, Wholistic Health Digest. October 1982:41.

10. Kelsay, J., et al. "Diets High in Glucose or Sucrose and Young Women." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1974;27:926-936. Thomas, B. J., et al. “Relation of Habitual Diet to Fasting Plasma Insulin Concentration and the Insulin Response to Oral Glucose,” Human Nutrition Clinical Nutrition. 1983; 36C(1):49_51.

11. Fields, M.., et al. "Effect of Copper Deficiency on Metabolism and Mortality in Rats Fed Sucrose or Starch Diets," Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1983;113:1335-1345.

12. Lemann, J. "Evidence that Glucose Ingestion Inhibits Net Renal Tubular Reabsorption of Calcium and Magnesium." Journal Of Clinical Nutrition. 1976;70:236-245.

13. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. Mar 2002;48;25. Taub, H. Ed. "Sugar Weakens Eyesight," VM NEWSLETTER;May 1986:6

14. "Sugar, White Flour Withdrawal Produces Chemical Response." The Addiction Letter. Jul 1992:4.

15. Dufty, William. Sugar Blues. (New York:Warner Books, 1975).

16. Ibid.

17. Jones, T. W., et al. “Enhanced Adrenomedullary Response and Increased Susceptibility to Neuroglygopenia: Mechanisms Underlying the Adverse Effect of Sugar Ingestion in Children.” Journal of Pediatrics. Feb 1995;126:171-7.

18. Ibid.

19. Lee, A. T.and Cerami A. "The Role of Glycation in Aging." Annals of the New York Academy of Science.1992;663:63-70.

20. Abrahamson, E. and Peget, A.. Body, Mind and Sugar. (New York:Avon,1977.)

21. Glinsmann, W., Irausquin, H., and Youngmee, K. “Evaluation of Health Aspects of Sugar Contained in Carbohydrate Sweeteners. F. D. A. Report of Sugars Task Force.” 1986:39. Makinen K.K.,et al. “A Descriptive Report of the Effects of a 16_month Xylitol Chewing_Gum Programme Subsequent to a 40_Month Sucrose Gum Programme.” Caries Research. 1998; 32(2)107-12. Riva Touger-Decker and Cor van Loveren, “Sugars and Dental Caries.” Am. J. Clin.Nut. Oct 2003; 78:881-892.

22. Keen, H., et al. "Nutrient Intake, Adiposity, and Diabetes." British Medical Journal. 1989; 1: 655-658.

23. Tragnone, A. et al. “Dietary Habits as Risk Factors for Inflammatory Bowel Disease.” Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. Jan 1995;7(1):47-51.

24. Yudkin, J. Sweet and Dangerous.. (New York;Bantam Books:1974), 129.

25. Darlington, L., Ramsey, N. W. and Mansfield, J. R. "Placebo_Controlled, Blind Study of Dietary Manipulation Therapy in Rheumatoid Arthritis," Lancet. Feb 1986;8475(1):236-238.

26. Powers, L. "Sensitivity: You React to What You Eat." Los Angeles Times. Feb. 12, 1985. Cheng, J., et al. “Preliminary Clinical Study on the Correlation Between Allergic Rhinitis and Food Factors.” Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi Aug 2002;16(8):393-396.

27. Crook, W. J. The Yeast Connection. (TN:Professional Books, 1984)..

28. Heaton, K. "The Sweet Road to Gallstones." British Medical Journal. Apr 14, 1984; 288:1103-1104. Misciagna, G., et al. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999;69:120-126.

29. Yudkin, J. "Sugar Consumption and Myocardial Infarction." Lancet..Feb 6, 1971;1(7693):296-297. Reiser, S. "Effects of Dietary Sugars on Metabolic Risk Factors Associated with Heart Disease." Nutritional Health. 1985;203-216.

30. Cleave, T. The Saccharine Disease. (New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, 1974).

31. Erlander, S. "The Cause and Cure of Multiple Sclerosis, The Disease to End Disease. Mar 3, 1979;1(3):59-63.

32. Cleave, T. The Saccharine Disease. (New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, 1974.)

33. Cleave, T. and Campbell, G. Diabetes, Coronary Thrombosis and the Saccharine Disease: (Bristol, England, John Wrightand Sons, 1960).

34. Behall, K. "Influence of Estrogen Content of Oral Contraceptives and Consumption of Sucrose on Blood Parameters." Disease Abstracts International. 1982;431-437.

35. Glinsmann, W., Irausquin, H., and K. Youngmee. Evaluation of Health Aspects of Sugar Contained in Carbohydrate Sweeteners. F. D. A. Report of Sugars Task Force.1986;39:36_38.

36. Tjäderhane, L. and Larmas, M. “A High Sucrose Diet Decreases the Mechanical Strength of Bones in Growing Rats.” Journal of Nutrition. 1998:128:1807-1810.

37. Appleton, N. New York: Healthy Bones. Avery Penguin Putnam:1989.

38. Beck_Nielsen H., Pedersen O., and Schwartz S. “Effects of Diet on the Cellular Insulin Binding and the Insulin Sensitivity in Young Healthy Subjects." Diabetes. 1978;15:289-296 .

39. Mohanty P. et al. “Glucose Challenge Stimulates Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Generation by Leucocytes.”Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. Aug 2000; 85(8):2970-2973.

40. Gardner, L. and Reiser, S. "Effects of Dietary Carbohydrate on Fasting Levels of Human Growth Hormone and Cortisol." Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1982;169:36-40.

41. Reiser, S. "Effects of Dietary Sugars on Metabolic Risk Factors Associated with Heart Disease." Nutritional Health. 1985;203:216.

42. Preuss, H. G. “Sugar-Induced Blood Pressure Elevations Over the Lifespan of Three Substrains of Wistar Rats.” J Am Coll of Nutrition, 1998;17(1) 36-37.

43. Behar, D., et al. “Sugar Challenge Testing with Children Considered Behaviorally Sugar Reactive." Nutritional Behavior. 1984;1:277-288.

44. Furth, A. and Harding, J. "Why Sugar Is Bad For You." New Scientist.”Sep 23, 1989;44.

45. Lee AT, Cerami A. “Role of Glycation in Aging.” Ann N Y Acad Sci. Nov 21,1992 ;663:63-70.

46. Appleton, N. New York: Lick the Sugar Habit. (New York: Avery Penguin Putnam:1988).

47. "Sucrose Induces Diabetes in Cat." Federal Protocol. 1974;6(97).

48. Cleave, T.:The Saccharine Disease: (New Canaan Ct: Keats Publishing, Inc., 1974).131.

49. Ibid. 132.

50. Vaccaro O., Ruth, K. J. and Stamler J. “Relationship of Postload Plasma Glucose to Mortality with 19 Year Follow-up.” Diabetes Care. Oct 15,1992;10:328-334. Tominaga, M., et al, “Impaired Glucose Tolerance Is a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease, but Not Fasting Glucose.” Diabetes Care. 1999:2(6):920-924.

51. Lee, A. T. and Cerami, A. "Modifications of Proteins and Nucleic Acids by Reducing Sugars: Possible Role in Aging." Handbook of the Biology of Aging. (New York: Academic Press, 1990.).

52. Monnier, V. M. "Nonenzymatic Glycosylation, the Maillard Reaction and the Aging Process." Journal of Gerontology 1990:45(4 ):105-110.

53. Dyer, D. G., et al. "Accumulation of Maillard Reaction Products in Skin Collagen in Diabetes and Aging." Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1993:93(6):421-422.

54. Veromann, S.et al.”Dietary Sugar and Salt Represent Real Risk Factors for Cataract Development.” Ophthalmologica. Jul-Aug 2003 ;217(4):302-307.

55. Monnier, V. M. "Nonenzymatic Glycosylation, the Maillard Reaction and the Aging Process." Journal of Gerontology. 1990:45(4):105-110.

56. Schmidt A.M. et al. “Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products: a mechanism for chronic vascular dysfunction in diabetic vasculopathy and atherosclerosis.” Circ Res.1999 Mar 19;84(5):489-97.

57. Lewis, G. F. and Steiner, G. “Acute Effects of Insulin in the Control of VLDL Production in Humans. Implications for Theinsulin-resistant State.” Diabetes Care. 1996 Apr;19(4):390-3 R. Pamplona, M. .J., et al. "Mechanisms of Glycation in Atherogenesis." Medical Hypotheses. 1990;40:174-181.

58. Ceriello, A. “Oxidative Stress and Glycemic Regulation.” Metabolism. Feb 2000;49(2 Suppl 1):27-29.

59. Appleton, Nancy. New York; Lick the Sugar Habit. (New York:Avery Penguin Putnam, 1988).

60. Hellenbrand, W. ”Diet and Parkinson's Disease. A Possible Role for the Past Intake of Specific Nutrients. Results from a Self-administered Food-frequency Questionnaire in a Case-control Study.” Neurology. Sep 1996;47(3):644-650

61. Cerami, A., Vlassara, H., and Brownlee, M. "Glucose and Aging." Scientific American. May 1987: 90.

62. Goulart, F. S. "Are You Sugar Smart?" American Fitness. Mar-Apr 1991: 34-38.

63. Ibid.

64. Yudkin, J., Kang, S. and Bruckdorfer, K. "Effects of High Dietary Sugar." British Journal of Medicine. Nov 22, 1980;1396.

65. Goulart, F. S. "Are You Sugar Smart?" American Fitness. March_April 1991: 34-38

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid.

70. Nash, J. "Health Contenders." Essence. Jan 1992-23: 79_81.

71. Grand, E. "Food Allergies and Migraine."Lancet. 1979:1:955_959.

72. Michaud, D. ”Dietary Sugar, Glycemic Load, and Pancreatic Cancer Risk in a Prospective Study.” J Natl Cancer Inst. Sep 4, 2002 ;94(17):1293-300.

73. Schauss, A. Diet, Crime and Delinquency. (Berkley Ca; Parker House, 1981).

74. Christensen, L. "The Role of Caffeine and Sugar in Depression." Nutrition Report. Mar 1991;9(3):17-24.

75. Ibid.

76. Cornee, J., et al. "A Case-control Study of Gastric Cancer and Nutritional Factors in Marseille, France," European Journal of Epidemiology. 1995;11:55-65.

77. Yudkin, J. Sweet and Dangerous.(New York:Bantam Books,1974) 129.

78. Ibid, 44

79. Reiser, S., et al. “Effects of Sugars on Indices on Glucose Tolerance in Humans." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1986:43;151-159.

80. Reiser,S., et al. “Effects of Sugars on Indices on Glucose Tolerance in Humans." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1986;43:151-159.

81. Molteni, R, et al. “A High-fat, Refined Sugar Diet Reduces Hippocampal Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor, Neuronal Plasticity, and Learning.” NeuroScience. 2002;112(4):803-814.

82. Monnier, V., “Nonenzymatic Glycosylation, the Maillard Reaction and the Aging Process.” Journal of Gerontology. 1990;45:105-111.

83. Frey, J. “Is There Sugar in the Alzheimer’s Disease?” Annales De Biologie Clinique. 2001; 59 (3):253-257.

84. Yudkin, J. "Metabolic Changes Induced by Sugar in Relation to Coronary Heart Disease and Diabetes." Nutrition and Health. 1987;5(1-2):5-8.

85. Ibid.

86. Blacklock, N. J., "Sucrose and Idiopathic Renal Stone." Nutrition and Health. 1987;5(1-2):9-12. Curhan, G., et al. “Beverage Use and Risk for Kidney Stones in Women.” Annals of Internal Medicine. 1998:28:534-340.

87. Journal of Advanced Medicine. 1994;7(1):51-58.

88. Ibid.

89. Ceriello, A. “Oxidative Stress and Glycemic Regulation.” Metabolism. Feb 2000;49(2 Suppl 1):27-29.

90. Postgraduate Medicine. Sept 1969:45:602-07.

91. Moerman, C. J., et al. “Dietary Sugar Intake in the Etiology of Biliary Tract Cancer.” International Journal of Epidemiology. Ap 1993;2(2):207-214.

92. Quillin, Patrick, “Cancer’s Sweet Tooth.” Nutrition Science News. Ap 2000.

Rothkopf, M.. Nutrition. July/Aug 1990;6(4).

93. Lenders, C. M. “Gestational Age and Infant Size at Birth Are Associated with Dietary Intake among Pregnant Adolescents.” Journal of Nutrition. Jun 1997;1113-1117.

94. Ibid.

95. Bostick, R. M., et al. "Sugar, Meat.and Fat Intake and Non-dietary Risk Factors for Colon Cancer Incidence in Iowa Women." Cancer Causes & Control. 1994:5:38-53.

96. Ibid. Kruis, W., et al. "Effects of Diets Low and High in Refined Sugars on Gut Transit, Bile Acid Metabolism and Bacterial Fermentation.” Gut. 1991;32:367-370. Ludwig, D. S., et al. “High Glycemic Index Foods, Overeating, And Obesity.” Pediatrics. Mar 1999;103(3):26-32.

97. Yudkin, J and Eisa, O. “Dietary Sucrose and Oestradiol Concentration in Young Men”. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 1988:32(2):53-55.

98. Lee, A. T. and Cerami A. "The Role of Glycation in Aging." Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 1992; 663:63-70.

99. Moerman, C. et al."Dietary Sugar Intake in the Etiology of Gallbladder Tract Cancer." Internat J of Epi. Ap 1993; 22(2):207-214.

100. "Sugar, White Flour Withdrawal Produces Chemical Response." The Addiction Letter. Jul 1992:4. Colantuoni, C., et al. “Evidence That Intermittent, Excessive Sugar Intake Causes Endogenous Opioid Dependence.” Obes Res. Jun 2002 ;10(6):478-488.

101. Ibid.

102. The Edell Health Letter. Sept 1991;7:1.

103. Sunehag, A. L., et al. “Gluconeogenesis in Very Low Birth Weight Infants Receiving Total Parenteral Nutrition” Diabetes. 1999 ;48 7991-8000).

104. Christensen L. et al. “Impact of A Dietary Change on Emotional Distress.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology .1985;94(4):565-79.

105. Nutrition Health Review. Fall 85. Sugar Changes into Fat Faster than Fat.”

106. Ludwig, D. S., et al. “High Glycemic Index Foods, Overeating and Obesity.” Pediatrics.Mar1999;103(3):26-32.

107. Girardi, N.L.” Blunted Catecholamine Responses after Glucose Ingestion in Children with Attention Deficit Disorder.” Pediatrics Research. 1995;38:539-542. Berdonces, J. L. “Attention Deficit and Infantile Hyperactivity.” Rev Enferm. Jan 2001;4(1)11-4

108. Blacklock, N. J. “Sucrose and Idiopathic Renal Stone.” Nutrition Health. 1987;5(1 & 2):9-17.

109. Lechin, F., et al. “Effects of an Oral Glucose Load on Plasma Neurotransmitters in Humans.” Neurophychobiology. 1992;26(1-2):4-11.

110. Fields, M. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. Aug 1998; 17(4):317-321.

111. Arieff, A. I. Veterans Administration Medical Center in San Francisco. San Jose Mercury; June 12/86. “IVs of Sugar Water Can Cut Off Oxygen to the Brain.”

112. De Stefani, E.“Dietary Sugar and Lung Cancer: a Case Control Study in Uruguay.” Nutrition and Cancer. 1998;31(2):132_7.

113. Sandler, Benjamin P. Diet Prevents Polio. Milwakuee, WI,:The Lee Foundation for for Nutritional Research, 1951.

114. Murphy, Patricia. “The Role of Sugar in Epileptic Seizures.” Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients. May, 2001.

115. Stern, N. & Tuck, M. “Pathogenesis of Hypertension in Diabetes Mellitus.” Diabetes Mellitus, a Fundamental and Clinical Test. 2nd Edition, (Phil. A:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000)943-957.

116. Christansen, D. “Critical Care: Sugar Limit Saves Lives.” Science News. June 30, 2001;159:404.

117. Donnini, D. et al. “Glucose May Induce Cell Death through a Free Radical-mediated Mechanism.”Biochem Biohhys Res Commun. Feb 15, 1996:219(2):412-417.

118. Allen S. Levine, Catherine M. Kotz, and Blake A. Gosnell . “Sugars and Fats: The Neurobiology of Preference “J. Nutr.2003 133:831S-834S.

119. Schoenthaler, S. The Los Angeles Probation Department Diet-Behavior Program: Am Empirical Analysis of Six Institutional Settings. Int J Biosocial Res 5(2):88-89.

120. Deneo-Pellegrini H,. et al.Foods, Nutrients and Prostate cancer: a Case-control study in Uruguay. Br J Cancer. 1999 May;80(3-4):591-7.

121. “Gluconeogenesis in Very Low Birth Weight Infants Receiving Total Parenteral Nutrition. Diabetes. 1999 Apr;48(4):791-800.

122. Yudkin, J. and Eisa, O. “Dietary Sucrose and Oestradiol Concentration in Young Men. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 1988;32(2):53-5.

123. Lenders, C. M. “Gestational Age and Infant Size at Birth Are Associated with Dietary Intake Among Pregnant Adolescents.” Journal of Nutrition 128; 1998::807-1810.

124. . Peet, M. “International Variations in the Outcome of Schizophrenia and the Prevalence of Depression in Relation to National Dietary Practices: An Ecological Analysis.” British Journal of Psychiatry. 2004;184:404-408.

125. Fonseca, V. et al. “Effects of a High-fat-sucrose Diet on Enzymes in Homosysteine Metabolism in the Rat.” Metabolism. 200; 49:736-41.

126. Potischman, N, et.al. “Increased Risk of Early-stage Breast Cancer Related to Consumption of Sweet Foods among Women Less than Age 45 in the United States." Cancer Causes Control. 2002 Dec;13(10):937-46.

127.Negri. E. et al. “Risk Factors for Adenocarcinoma of the Small Intestine.” International Journal of Cancer. 1999:82:I2:171-174.

128.Bosetti, C. et al. “Food Groups and Laryngeal Cancer Risk: A Case-control Study from Italy and Switzerland.” International Journal of Cancer, 2002:100(3): 355-358.

129. Shannon, M. “An Empathetic Look at Overweight.”CCL Family Found.” Nov-Dec.1993. 20(3):3-5.

130. Harry G. Preuss, M.D., of Georgetown University Medical School

131., “Health After 50.” Johns Hopkins Medical Letter. May, 1994.

132. Allen, S. "Sugars and Fats: The Neurobiology of Preference." Journal of Nutrition. 2003;133:831S-834S.

133. Booth, D.A.M. etc al. “Sweetness and Food Selection: Measurement of Sweeteners’ Effects on Acceptance.” Sweetness. Dobbing, J., Ed., (London:Springer-Verlag, 1987).

134. Cleve, T.L On the Causation of Varicose Veins. “Bristol, England, John Wright, 1960.”

135. Cleve, T.L On the Causation of Varicose Veins. “Bristol, England, John Wright, 1960”.

136. Ket, Yaffe et al. “Diabetes, Impaired Fasting Glucose and Development of Cognitive Impairment in Older Women. Neurology 2004;63:658–663.

137. Chatenoud, Liliane et al. “Refined-cereal Intake and Risk of Selected Cancers in Italy.” Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, Dec 1999;70:1107-1110.

138. Yoo, Sunmi et al. “Comparison of Dietary Intakes Associated with Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factors in Young Adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study” Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Oct;80(4):841-848.

139. Shaw, Gary M. et al. “Neural Tube Defects Associated with Maternal Periconceptional Dietary Intake of Simple Sugars and Glycemic Index.” Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, Nov 2003;78:972-978.

140. Krilanovich, Nicholas J. “Fructose Misuse, the Obesity Epidemic, the Special Problems of the Child, and a Call to Action “ Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, Nov 2004;80:1446-1447.

141.Jarnerot, G., “Consumption of Refined Sugar by Patients with Crohn's Disease, Ulcerative colitis, or Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1983 Nov;18(8):999-1002.

142. Allen, S. "Sugars and Fats: The Neurobiology of Preference." J Nutr. 2003;133:831S-834S.

143. De Stefani E, Mendilaharsu M, and Deneo-Pellegrini H. Sucrose as a Risk Factor for Cancer of the Colon and Rectum: a Case-control Study in Uruguay. Int J Cancer. 1998 Jan 5;75(1):40-4.

144. Levi F, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C. “Dietary Factors and the Risk of Endometrial Cancer. Cancer. 1993 Jun 1;71(11):3575-3581.

145. Mellemgaard A. et al. “Dietary Risk Factors for Renal Cell Carcinoma in Denmark.” Eur J Cancer. 1996 Apr;32A(4):673-82.

146. Rogers AE, Nields HM, Newberne PM. “Nutritional and Dietary Influences on Liver Tumorigenesis in Mice and Rats. Arch Toxicol Suppl. 1987;10:231-43. Review.

[muokkaa] Aiheesta muualla

• Fineli: Sokerien lähteet ruoka-aineissa

• Sokerin haittavaikutukset terveydelle - 146 perustetta sokerin haitallisuudesta