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* {{Kiina}} alaisuudessa [[Kiinan kommunistinen puolue|Kiinan kommunistisen puolueen]] valtakausi vuodesta 1949 <ref>Ming Xia, [https://www.nytimes.com/ref/college/coll-china-politics.html China Rises Companion: Political Governance], ''New York Times''. See also Cheng Li, [http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2012/09/shifting-power-china-lic The End of the CCP’s Resilient Authoritarianism? A Tripartite Assessment of Shifting Power in China] (September 2012), ''The China Quarterly'', Vol. 211; Perry Link and Joshua Kurlantzick, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124319304482150525 China's Modern Authoritarianism] (May 25, 2009), ''Wall Street Journal''; Ariana Eunjung Cha, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/26/AR2009062604343.html China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran] (June 27, 2009), ''Washington Post''.</ref>
* {{Kiina}} alaisuudessa [[Kiinan kommunistinen puolue|Kiinan kommunistisen puolueen]] valtakausi vuodesta 1949 <ref>Ming Xia, [https://www.nytimes.com/ref/college/coll-china-politics.html China Rises Companion: Political Governance], ''New York Times''. See also Cheng Li, [http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2012/09/shifting-power-china-lic The End of the CCP’s Resilient Authoritarianism? A Tripartite Assessment of Shifting Power in China] (September 2012), ''The China Quarterly'', Vol. 211; Perry Link and Joshua Kurlantzick, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124319304482150525 China's Modern Authoritarianism] (May 25, 2009), ''Wall Street Journal''; Ariana Eunjung Cha, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/26/AR2009062604343.html China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran] (June 27, 2009), ''Washington Post''.</ref>
* {{Kuuba}} [[Fidel Castro|Fidel]] ja [[Raúl Castro]] alaisuudessa vuodesta 1959 vuodesta <ref>Ariana Eunjung Cha, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/26/AR2009062604343.html China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran] (June 27, 2009), ''Washington Post''; Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor Boas, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2001/07/16/internet-and-state-control-in-authoritarian-regimes-china-cuba-and-counterrevolution/1ic4 Internet and State Control in Authoritarian Regimes: China, Cuba and the Counterrevolution] (July 16, 2001), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.</ref>
* {{Kuuba}} [[Fidel Castro|Fidel]] ja [[Raúl Castro]] alaisuudessa vuodesta 1959 vuodesta <ref>Ariana Eunjung Cha, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/26/AR2009062604343.html China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran] (June 27, 2009), ''Washington Post''; Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor Boas, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2001/07/16/internet-and-state-control-in-authoritarian-regimes-china-cuba-and-counterrevolution/1ic4 Internet and State Control in Authoritarian Regimes: China, Cuba and the Counterrevolution] (July 16, 2001), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.</ref>
* {{Egypti}} [[Hosni Mubarak]]in (valtakausi 1981–2011) ja [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]n alaisuudessa vuodesta 2014 <ref>Amr Adly, [http://carnegie-mec.org/publications/?fa=55804 The Economics of Egypt’s Rising Authoritarian Order], [[Carnegie Middle East Center]], June 18, 2014; Nathan J. Brown & Katie Bentivoglio, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/10/09/egypt-s-resurgent-authoritarianism-it-s-way-of-life Egypt's Resurgent Authoritarianism: It's a Way of Life], [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], October 9, 2014; [[Roula Khalaf]], [https://www.ft.com/content/8127ef6e-c38e-11e6-9bca-2b93a6856354 Sisi’s Egypt: The march of the security state], ''Financial Times'' (December 19, 2016); [[Peter Hessler]], [http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/01/02/egypts-failed-revolution Egypt's Failed Revolution], ''New Yorker'', January 2, 2017.</ref>
* {{Egypti}} [[Hosni Mubarak]]in (valtakausi 1981–2011) ja [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]n alaisuudessa vuodesta 2014 <ref>Amr Adly, [http://carnegie-mec.org/publications/?fa=55804 The Economics of Egypt’s Rising Authoritarian Order], Carnegie Middle East Center, June 18, 2014; Nathan J. Brown & Katie Bentivoglio, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/10/09/egypt-s-resurgent-authoritarianism-it-s-way-of-life Egypt's Resurgent Authoritarianism: It's a Way of Life], Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, October 9, 2014; [[Roula Khalaf]], [https://www.ft.com/content/8127ef6e-c38e-11e6-9bca-2b93a6856354 Sisi’s Egypt: The march of the security state], ''Financial Times'' (December 19, 2016); [[Peter Hessler]], [http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/01/02/egypts-failed-revolution Egypt's Failed Revolution], ''New Yorker'', January 2, 2017.</ref>
* {{Iran}} [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]n ja [[Ali Khamenei]]in alaisuudessa vuodesta 1981 vuodesta <ref>Mehrdad Kia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75#v=onepage&q&f=false The Making of Modern Authoritarianism in Contemporary Iran], in ''Modern Middle East Authoritarianism: Roots, Ramifications, and Crisis'' (Routledge: 2013; eds. Noureddine Jebnoun, Mehrdad Kia & Mimi Kirk), pp. 75–76.</ref> <ref>Juan José Linz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8cYk_ABfMJIC&pg=PA36 Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes]'' (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.</ref>
* {{Iran}} [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]n ja [[Ali Khamenei]]in alaisuudessa vuodesta 1981 vuodesta <ref>Mehrdad Kia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75#v=onepage&q&f=false The Making of Modern Authoritarianism in Contemporary Iran], in ''Modern Middle East Authoritarianism: Roots, Ramifications, and Crisis'' (Routledge: 2013; eds. Noureddine Jebnoun, Mehrdad Kia & Mimi Kirk), pp. 75–76.</ref> <ref>Juan José Linz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8cYk_ABfMJIC&pg=PA36 Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes]'' (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.</ref>
* {{Jordania}} [[Abdullah II ]]:n alaisuudessa<ref name="wasp">{{cite news|last1=Yom|first1=Sean|title=Why Jordan and Morocco are doubling down on royal rule|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/05/16/why-jordan-and-morocco-are-doubling-down-on-royal-rule/|work=Washington Post|date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
* {{Jordania}} [[Abdullah II ]]:n alaisuudessa<ref name="wasp">{{cite news|last1=Yom|first1=Sean|title=Why Jordan and Morocco are doubling down on royal rule|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/05/16/why-jordan-and-morocco-are-doubling-down-on-royal-rule/|work=Washington Post|date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
Rivi 36: Rivi 36:
* {{Pohjois-Korea}} [[Korean työväenpuolue]]en alaisuudessa vuodesta 1947<ref>Daniel Byman, [http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/20208/pyongyangs_survival_strategy.html Pyongyang’s Survival Strategy: Tools of Authoritarian Control in North Korea], ''International Security'', Vol. 35, issue 1, pp. 44–74 (Summer 2010); Chico Harlan, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-authoritarian-north-korea-hints-of-reform/2012/09/03/bb5d95ce-f275-11e1-adc6-87dfa8eff430_story.html In authoritarian North Korea, hints of reform], ''Washington Post'', September 3, 2012.</ref>
* {{Pohjois-Korea}} [[Korean työväenpuolue]]en alaisuudessa vuodesta 1947<ref>Daniel Byman, [http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/20208/pyongyangs_survival_strategy.html Pyongyang’s Survival Strategy: Tools of Authoritarian Control in North Korea], ''International Security'', Vol. 35, issue 1, pp. 44–74 (Summer 2010); Chico Harlan, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-authoritarian-north-korea-hints-of-reform/2012/09/03/bb5d95ce-f275-11e1-adc6-87dfa8eff430_story.html In authoritarian North Korea, hints of reform], ''Washington Post'', September 3, 2012.</ref>
* {{Qatar}} [[Al-Thani]] dynastian alaisuudessa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://freedomhouse.org/blog/dictators-continue-score-international-sporting-events|title=Dictators Continue to Score in International Sporting Events|last=|first=|date=|work=Freedom House|access-date=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref>
* {{Qatar}} [[Al-Thani]] dynastian alaisuudessa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://freedomhouse.org/blog/dictators-continue-score-international-sporting-events|title=Dictators Continue to Score in International Sporting Events|last=|first=|date=|work=Freedom House|access-date=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref>
* {{Venäjä}} [[Vladimir Putin]]in alaisuudessa 1999 <ref>Nikolay Petrov and Michael McFaul, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2005/10/18/essence-of-putin-s-managed-democracy/1ul9 The Essence of Putin's Managed Democracy] (October 18, 2005), [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]; Tom Parfitt, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/11/russia-era-managed-democracy-mikhail-prokhorov Billionaire tycoon Mikhail Prokhorov who is running in the 4 March election says it is time for evolution not revolution] (January 11, 2012), ''Guardian''; Richard Denton, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/4756959.stm Russia's 'managed democracy'] (May 11, 2006), BBC News.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nations in Transit 2014 – Russia|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/nations-transit/2014/russia#.VDEX4Gc7uSq|website=Freedom House}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Myth of the Authoritarian Model – How Putin’s Crackdown Holds Russia Back|url=http://fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Myth_of_the_Authoritarian_Model.pdf |website=The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford}}</ref>
* {{Venäjä}} [[Vladimir Putin]]in alaisuudessa 1999 <ref>Nikolay Petrov and Michael McFaul, [http://carnegieendowment.org/2005/10/18/essence-of-putin-s-managed-democracy/1ul9 The Essence of Putin's Managed Democracy] (October 18, 2005), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Tom Parfitt, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/11/russia-era-managed-democracy-mikhail-prokhorov Billionaire tycoon Mikhail Prokhorov who is running in the 4 March election says it is time for evolution not revolution] (January 11, 2012), ''Guardian''; Richard Denton, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/4756959.stm Russia's 'managed democracy'] (May 11, 2006), BBC News.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nations in Transit 2014 – Russia|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/nations-transit/2014/russia#.VDEX4Gc7uSq|website=Freedom House}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Myth of the Authoritarian Model – How Putin’s Crackdown Holds Russia Back|url=http://fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Myth_of_the_Authoritarian_Model.pdf |website=The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford}}</ref>
* {{Singapore}} [[Lee Kuan Yew]]in alaisuudessa vuoteen 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lee Kuan Yew leaves a legacy of authoritarian pragmatism|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/23/lee-kuan-yews-legacy-of-authoritarian-pragmatism-will-serve-singapore-well|accessdate=5 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=January 5, 2017 Fear, smear and the paradox of authoritarian politics in Singapore|url=http://www.theindependent.sg/fear-smear-and-the-paradox-of-authoritarian-politics-in-singapore/|accessdate=5 May 2017}}</ref>
* {{Singapore}} [[Lee Kuan Yew]]in alaisuudessa vuoteen 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lee Kuan Yew leaves a legacy of authoritarian pragmatism|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/23/lee-kuan-yews-legacy-of-authoritarian-pragmatism-will-serve-singapore-well|accessdate=5 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=January 5, 2017 Fear, smear and the paradox of authoritarian politics in Singapore|url=http://www.theindependent.sg/fear-smear-and-the-paradox-of-authoritarian-politics-in-singapore/|accessdate=5 May 2017}}</ref>
* {{Saudi-Arabia}} Al-Saudi dynastian alaisuudessa vuodesta 1744<ref>Toby Craig Jones, ''Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia'' (2011), Harvard University Press, pp. 5, 14–15; Kira D. Baiasu, [http://groups.northwestern.edu/njia/?p=85 Sustaining Authoritarian Rule] Fall 2009, Volume 10, Issue 1 (September 30, 2009), ''Northwestern Journal of International Affairs''.</ref>
* {{Saudi-Arabia}} Al-Saudi dynastian alaisuudessa vuodesta 1744<ref>Toby Craig Jones, ''Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia'' (2011), Harvard University Press, pp. 5, 14–15; Kira D. Baiasu, [http://groups.northwestern.edu/njia/?p=85 Sustaining Authoritarian Rule] Fall 2009, Volume 10, Issue 1 (September 30, 2009), ''Northwestern Journal of International Affairs''.</ref>

Versio 7. helmikuuta 2018 kello 13.54

Hakusana ”autoritaarinen” ohjaa tänne. Se voi viitata myös autoritaariseen persoonallisuuteen.
  Autoritaariset valtiot
  Rajoitetusti demokraattiset valtiot
  Demokraattiset valtiot
Lähteet: Freedom House, Bertelsmann-säätiö, IDEA
Osa artikkelisarjaa
Valtiomuodot
Vallan lähde
Vallan ideologia
Vallan rakenne

Autoritarismi tarkoittaa enemmän tai vähemmän itsevaltaista hallintotapaa erotuksena demokraattisesta hallintomuodosta.[1]

Autoritaarista valtiota hallitsee keskitetysti yksi henkilö tai juntta vuodesta esimerkiksi sotilasdiktatuuri). Hallinto toimii yleensä ilman kansanedustusta, tai edustuksellisuus on tiukasti rajattu hallinnon kannattajiin. Hallinnon toimien ulkopuolista valvontaa ei ole järjestetty. Tyypillisesti autoritaarisen valtion johto on tietty eliittiryhmä, joka vallassa pysyäkseen käyttää painostusta.

Autoritaarisuutta pidetään politiikassa yleisesti liberaalin tai demokraattisen asennoitumisen vastakohtana. Toisaalta esimerkiksi Richard Sakwa on tuonut esiin termin ”demokraattinen autoritaarisuus” (engl. democratic authoritarianism) perustellen tätä sillä, että autoritaarisuus syntyy sekä sisällöstä että prosessista.[2]

Autoritaarisen ja totalitaarisen hallinnon eroja

Yhdysvalloissa määriteltiin autoritarismin ero totalitarismiin Kirkpatrickin doktriinia sovellettaessa. Jeane Kirkpatrickin kehittämän doktriini saneli Yhdysvaltain ulkopolitiikkaa 1980-luvun alusta. Teorian mukaan lännen kanssa yhteistyötä tekevät ei-demokraattiset valtiot olivat ”autoritaarisia”, kun taas Neuvostoblokki oli ”totalitaarinen”. Kirkpatrickin mukaan totalitaariset valtiot olivat kestävämpiä ja siksi vaarallisempia kuin autoritaariset. Esimerkkejä autoritaarisista valtioista ja järjestöistä olivat Ferdinand Marcosin Filippiinit, sekä Angolan UNITA- ja Nicaraguan Contra-sissiliikkeet. Joidenkin määritelmien mukaan autoritaarista ja totalitaarista hallintoa erottaa pääasiassa se, että siinä kun autoritaarisessa yhteiskunnassa valtaa pitää yksi henkilö tai ihmisryhmä, niin totalitaarisessa yhteiskunnassa vallassa on yksi poliittinen tai uskonnollinen ideologia.

Konstantin Pätsin Viro

Esimerkki autoritaarisesta hallinnosta voisi olla Viron Konstantin Pätsin hallinto vuosina 1934–1940. Päts julisti toimitusministeristön johdossa ollessaan maahan poikkeustilan, jonka jälkeen hän toimi autoritaarisena yksinvaltiaana ja kielsi poliittiset puolueet. Vaikka Pätsin aikana järjestäytynyt poliittinen vastustus oli kielletty, jonkinasteinen oppositiotoiminta sallittiin. Kansanedustuksellisia elimiä ei poistettu, mutta esimerkiksi parlamenttia ei kutsuttu koolle, ja muiden elimien vaaleissa ehdokasasettelu rajattiin hallituksen kannattajiin. Päts valitutti itsensä riigivanemiksi ja presidentiksi. Poliittisia vastustajia painostettiin monin tavoin, ja vangitsemiset olivat yleisiä. Vastustajia ei kuitenkaan teloitettu. Viron myöhempi presidentti Lennart Meri on kuvannut Pätsin hallintoa pehmeäksi diktatuuriksi.


Nykyiset esimerkit

Lähteet

  1. ↑ Roberts, Andrew: Authoritarian and authoritarianism Social Science Dictionary with a Durkheim bias. Viitattu 12.11.2014. (englanniksi)tarvitaan parempi lähde
  2. ↑ Sakwa, Richard: Problems of Democracy and Democratic Theory: The Case of Russia (Internet Archive) The Political Studies Association. Viitattu 12.11.2014. (englanniksi)
  3. ↑ Vincent, Rebecca. "When the music dies: Azerbaijan one year after Eurovision", 19 May 2013. Luettu 10 June 2013. “Over the past several years, Azerbaijan has become increasingly authoritarian, as the authorities have used tactics such as harassment, intimidation, blackmail, attack and imprisonment to silence the regime’s critics, whether journalists, bloggers, human rights defenders, political activists or ordinary people taking to the streets in protest.” 
  4. ↑ Nebil Husayn, Authoritarianism in Bahrain: Motives, Methods and Challenges, AMSS 41st Annual Conference (September 29, 2012); Parliamentary Elections and Authoritarian Rule in Bahrain (January 13, 2011), Stanford University
  5. ↑ Rausing, Sigrid. "Belarus: inside Europe’s last dictatorship", The Guardian, 7 October 2012. Luettu 7 August 2014. 
  6. ↑ "Belarus’s Lukashenko: "Better a dictator than gay"", 4 March 2012. “...German Foreign Minister's branding him 'Europe's last dictator'” 
  7. ↑ "Profile: Alexander Lukashenko", BBC News, BBC, 9 January 2007. Luettu 7 August 2014. “'..an authoritarian ruling style is characteristic of me [Lukashenko]'” 
  8. ↑ Essential Background – Belarus Human Rights Watch. Viitattu 26 March 2006.
  9. ↑ Human rights by country – Belarus Amnesty International Report 2007. Amnesty International. Arkistoitu 12 December 2007. Viitattu 22 December 2007.
  10. ↑ Elisabeth Bumiller. "In Cambodia, Panetta Reaffirms Ties With Authoritarian Government", November 16, 2012. 
  11. ↑ a b c Freedom House (2016). Freedom in the World 2016: Anxious Dictators, Wavering Democracies: Global Freedom Under Pressure. 
  12. ↑ "Amnesty International Report 2009: State of the World's Human Rights" Amnesty International.
  13. ↑ Ming Xia, China Rises Companion: Political Governance, New York Times. See also Cheng Li, The End of the CCP’s Resilient Authoritarianism? A Tripartite Assessment of Shifting Power in China (September 2012), The China Quarterly, Vol. 211; Perry Link and Joshua Kurlantzick, China's Modern Authoritarianism (May 25, 2009), Wall Street Journal; Ariana Eunjung Cha, China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran (June 27, 2009), Washington Post.
  14. ↑ Ariana Eunjung Cha, China, Cuba, Other Authoritarian Regimes Censor News From Iran (June 27, 2009), Washington Post; Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor Boas, Internet and State Control in Authoritarian Regimes: China, Cuba and the Counterrevolution (July 16, 2001), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  15. ↑ Amr Adly, The Economics of Egypt’s Rising Authoritarian Order, Carnegie Middle East Center, June 18, 2014; Nathan J. Brown & Katie Bentivoglio, Egypt's Resurgent Authoritarianism: It's a Way of Life, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, October 9, 2014; Roula Khalaf, Sisi’s Egypt: The march of the security state, Financial Times (December 19, 2016); Peter Hessler, Egypt's Failed Revolution, New Yorker, January 2, 2017.
  16. ↑ Mehrdad Kia, The Making of Modern Authoritarianism in Contemporary Iran, in Modern Middle East Authoritarianism: Roots, Ramifications, and Crisis (Routledge: 2013; eds. Noureddine Jebnoun, Mehrdad Kia & Mimi Kirk), pp. 75–76.
  17. ↑ Juan José Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.
  18. ↑ a b "Why Jordan and Morocco are doubling down on royal rule", Washington Post, 16 May 2017. 
  19. ↑ Beckert, Jen. "Communitarianism." International Encyclopedia of Economic Sociology. London: Routledge, 2006. 81.
  20. ↑ Daniel Byman, Pyongyang’s Survival Strategy: Tools of Authoritarian Control in North Korea, International Security, Vol. 35, issue 1, pp. 44–74 (Summer 2010); Chico Harlan, In authoritarian North Korea, hints of reform, Washington Post, September 3, 2012.
  21. ↑ "Dictators Continue to Score in International Sporting Events", Freedom House. 
  22. ↑ Nikolay Petrov and Michael McFaul, The Essence of Putin's Managed Democracy (October 18, 2005), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Tom Parfitt, Billionaire tycoon Mikhail Prokhorov who is running in the 4 March election says it is time for evolution not revolution (January 11, 2012), Guardian; Richard Denton, Russia's 'managed democracy' (May 11, 2006), BBC News.
  23. ↑ Nations in Transit 2014 – Russia freedomhouse.org.
  24. ↑ The Myth of the Authoritarian Model – How Putin’s Crackdown Holds Russia Back fsi.stanford.edu.
  25. ↑ Lee Kuan Yew leaves a legacy of authoritarian pragmatism theguardian.com. Viitattu 5 May 2017.
  26. ↑ January 5, 2017 Fear, smear and the paradox of authoritarian politics in Singapore theindependent.sg. Viitattu 5 May 2017.
  27. ↑ Toby Craig Jones, Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia (2011), Harvard University Press, pp. 5, 14–15; Kira D. Baiasu, Sustaining Authoritarian Rule Fall 2009, Volume 10, Issue 1 (September 30, 2009), Northwestern Journal of International Affairs.
  28. ↑ (2013) Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford University Press, 13. ISBN 978-0804793339. 
  29. ↑ Jakubowski, Andrzej (2016). Cultural Rights as Collective Rights: An International Law Perspective. Brill – Nijhoff, 196. ISBN 978-9004312012. 
  30. ↑ Berk Esena & Sebnem Gumuscub, Rising competitive authoritarianism in Turkey, Third World Quarterly (February 19, 2016). doi:10.1080/01436597.2015.1135732; Ramazan Kılınç, Turkey: from conservative democracy to popular authoritarianism, openDemocracy (December 5, 2015).
  31. ↑ Turkmenistan hrw.org. Viitattu 4 September 2016.
  32. ↑ The dark side of the United Arab Emirates newint.org. 7 September 2015. Viitattu 22 October 2017.
  33. ↑ United Arab Emirates profile bbc.com. 29 August 2017. Viitattu 22 October 2017.
  34. ↑ Neil J. Melvin, Uzbekistan: Transition to Authoritarianism on the Silk Road (Harwood Academic, 2000), pp. 28–30.
  35. ↑ Shahram Akbarzadeh, "Post-Soviet Central Asia: The Limits of Islam" in Constitutionalism in Islamic Countries: Between Upheaval and Continuity (Oxford University Press, 2012: eds. Rainer Grote & Tilmann J. Röder), p. 428.
  36. ↑ https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21732574-new-president-less-brutal-his-predecessor-no-democrat-uzbek-spring-has-sprung
  37. ↑ Human Rights Watch, Venezuela: Chávez’s Authoritarian Legacy: Dramatic Concentration of Power and Open Disregard for Basic Human Rights, March 5, 2013; Kurt Weyland, Latin America's Authoritarian Drift: The Threat from the Populist Left, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 24, No. 3 (July 2013), pp. 18–32.
  38. ↑ Thomas Fuller, In Hard Times, Open Dissent and Repression Rise in Vietnam (April 23, 2013), New York Times
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